In the 1860s, Rome served as the capital of the Papal States. Pope Pius IX governed the city and the surrounding lands as a king. This decade was a period of intense pressure from the movement for Italian unification. While most of Italy had joined together under King Victor Emmanuel II, Rome remained independent. French soldiers stationed in the city protected the Pope from outside attacks. These troops ensured that the Roman Catholic Church maintained its political power over the ancient city.
The physical appearance of Rome in the 1860s was a mixture of ancient ruins and crowded medieval streets. Most roads were unpaved and turned into thick mud during the winter rains. The Tiber River flooded the lower parts of the city almost every year. Residents lived in stone buildings that had stood for centuries. Despite these conditions, Rome was a center for high culture. Artists from across Europe and the United States traveled to the city to study classical sculptures and Renaissance paintings. They occupied studios in neighborhoods like the Trastevere and the area around the Spanish Steps.
Modern technology began to arrive during this decade. The first railway line connecting Rome to other Italian cities was expanded. Pope Pius IX oversaw the construction of the original Termini Station. Gas lamps were installed on several major streets to provide light at night. These changes were slow because the government prioritized tradition over rapid industrial growth. The city walls still marked the boundary of urban life, and the gates were closed every night at sunset.
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The decade saw significant military tension. In 1867, the Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Garibaldi led an army of volunteers to capture Rome. He wanted to end the Pope’s political rule and make Rome the capital of Italy. The Papal army and French troops met Garibaldi’s forces at the Battle of Mentana on November 3, 1867. The Papal forces used new breech-loading rifles called Chassepots to defeat the invaders. This victory ensured that the Pope kept control of the city for several more years.
Religious authority reached a peak in 1869. The Pope called for the First Vatican Council. Hundreds of Catholic bishops from all over the world arrived in Rome. They gathered in St. Peter’s Basilica to discuss the role of the Church in the modern world. The Council declared the doctrine of papal infallibility. This meeting brought thousands of visitors to the city, filling the hotels and restaurants. The presence of so many international leaders made Rome the center of global religious attention.
Social life centered on the local piazzas and churches. People gathered in the Piazza Navona to buy food from street vendors. The market at Campo de’ Fiori sold fresh produce and household goods. Wealthy families rode through the Pincian Hill in horse-drawn carriages to show off their fashion. Poor residents worked as laborers or sold religious souvenirs to pilgrims. The gap between the rich and the poor was visible in the quality of housing and clothing.
French protection was the only thing keeping the Italian army away from the city walls. Napoleon III of France needed to support the Pope to maintain his own popularity at home. This political standoff lasted until the very end of the decade. The situation changed only when the Franco-Prussian War began in 1870, forcing the French to withdraw their troops to defend their own borders.
